Reflection Journal free essay sample

If animals should have certain rights, do you think those rights also apply to animals we raise for food, like chicken and pigs? Are there any rights that these farm animals should have? If so, what are they? * Yes, I believe that those rights should apply to animals raised for food, as well. I’m not saying that we should stop killing them altogether because, however cruel it may sound, we still need food and meat is food. Yes, the farm animals should have rights and at the very least, they should be: grown in a healthy and somewhat free environment, they should not be given harmful medicine (which just makes good sense, but the companies seem to be denying the fact that this is wrong to feed their greed), etc. 2. Richard Lobb of the National Chicken Council says in the film, â€Å"In a way, we’re not producing chickens, we’re producing food. We will write a custom essay sample on Reflection Journal or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page † What does this statement mean? Do you agree or disagree with it? How might this perspective affect the way that chickens are raised? That statement means that they don’t think of chickens as animals anymore. Right from the moment they’re laid (as eggs), they are thought of as food. I completely disagree with the statement, and this might affect the way chickens are raised by the point of view of the workers and officials (and what have you). If we keep thinking that these chickens are not animals, but are merely food for ourselves and our consumers, the process of making chickens might become more inhumane as it evolves to become even more efficient. 3. As consumers, do we have the right to know how the chickens we eat are being raised? Do we want to know? * Yes, we definitely have the right to be informed on what we eat. However, I think some—if not most—of the consumers wouldn’t want to know the reality of how the food we eat are raised. Chapter II: A Cornucopia of Choices 1. In the film, food science Professor Larry Johnson says, â€Å"If you go and look on the supermarket shelf, I’ll bet you 90% of the products would contain either a corn or soybean ingredient. And most of the time it will contain both. Why might it be a problem that the majority of our food is made mostly from just corn and soybeans—so that nearly everything we eat contains them? * I think it’s a problem because, as the saying goes, â€Å"Too much of anything is bad for you†. Also, I think, because most of our food have these ingredients, we will become too used to having it and too dependent on foods like this (which most of us already are). Furthermore, it’s a problem because nutrients (if any at all are present in these ingredients) are not balanced and our health and nutrition are at stake. 2. Food labels actually do list corn-based ingredients, but not always in a recognizable way. How do you feel about ingredients being included in your diet without your knowledge? * I think it’s insulting, to be honest. I don’t know how that makes sense but it insults me that the companies don’t label their foods properly that we as consumers take in. It insults me that I basically don’t know the food I eat because of their processes and labeling and all the other factors that come in to food-making. I feel like if they know that if they labeled their foods more bluntly, consumers would turn away from these foods. And so they’re deliberately trying to hide it from us. 3. The movie points out that cows and farm-raised fish, which are not biologically suited to eating corn, are now given a modified diet that is based on corn. Do you think people’s diets have been modified in a similar way? How do you feel about the possibility of your food being modified without you being aware of it? * Yes, this is the first thing I thought of after watching the clip from the video. Whether the companies are aware of it or not, they not only changed the diets of the meat we eat, but they changed the consumers’ diets as well. And for what? Because corn is cheaper, because corn help them make profits, because corn is the perfect product to fuel their greed. Chapter III: Unintended Consequences 1. Who’s responsible for Kevin’s death? What do you think the consequences or repercussions should be? * In my opinion, everyone in the food industry had a hand at what happened to Kevin. The companies itself, directly, for endlessly trying to make profits by looking for ways to make food cheaper, the fast food industry, and even the government for not banning this way of processing food still. Since it’s basically impossible to track these diseases back to the source, and consumers’ needs have to be met (so the companies can’t be shut down), I think that the proper consequence would be that these companies are to be banned from putting chemicals and other â€Å"enhancers† on our food and just keep them as natural as they possibly can, which isn’t too hard to do. 2. The mother says, â€Å"Sometimes it feels like industry was more protected than my son. † What do you think of her words? * She’s right. The food industry is definitely given more importance than the consumers. After all, the food industry keeps the government and economy funded, right? 3. Do we have the right to assume that our food is safe? If so, who do you think should be responsible for ensuring its safety? * Of course we do! It’s food. It’s what makes us healthy and keeps us living. Of course we have a right to assume that it’s safe. The ones who are responsible should be the government and the officials and workers of the food industry, surely. Chapter IV: The Dollar Menu 1. Should access to healthy food be a right for everyone? * Without question. Why shouldn’t it be? 2. How might we make healthy food available to everyone? * Instead of building factories everywhere, maybe use the land for farms and as for the consumers’ responsibility, buy more organic foods than GMOs. 3. How might our government policies be restructured to allow more access to healthier foods? * Possibly terminate funding to the GMO-making companies and start funding organic farms. 4. Do you think healthy eating should be a right, responsibility, or a privilege? * It should be both a right and a responsibility. It shouldn’t be a privilege. It shouldn’t be only for those people who have the means to get it. It should be for everyone, no exceptions. Chapter V: In the Grass 1. How would you compare the slaughtering of the chickens by Polyface Farms to the slaughtering of the Smithfield hogs? How do the workers’ conditions compare? * The slaughtering in Polyface Farms is much more humane and merciful than the slaughtering in the Smithfield slaughterhouse. The workers conditions, meanwhile, are also much more favourable in Polyface Farms. They have fresh air and a healthy environment, whereas in Smithfield, workers are bused in from as far as 100 miles away and they are in a closed environment, an unhealthy factory that seems as if the workers are locked in from the outside while they’re working. 2. Slaughterhouse workers may earn as little as $8 an hour to do the work shown in the film. For how much money would you be willing to do this work? What else might you demand? * The clips shown in the film of workers look very demanding. There’s no specific price I have in mind but it certainly is much higher than eight dollars an hour. And I would want health benefits, as well. For me, work like that would not only be physically demanding, but mentally and I think psychologically as well. 3. What might people do to make sure that their eating meat does not harm other people and animals? * Buy from farms such as Polyface Farms. I realize that’s not easy for most people but if supermarkets and grocery stores were to buy from these kinds of farms, then it’s going to be a lot easier. 4. What is meant by the phrase â€Å"vote with your fork†? * I suppose what it means is that the public should vote the officials that will help them have access to food that’s actually good for them without too much cost. Chapter VI: Hidden Costs 1. As the film suggests, small companies and producers are often bought out or taken by very big companies. What might be the implications of that—both positive and negative? * Well, the positive would have to be that there would be more money for the small companies to keep working and that their food is marketed to the public even more. The negative would have to be, because of the demand from consumers, they have to work more efficiently, thereby losing â€Å"their soul† and they will sort of conform to the big companies’ idea so that they can supply the consumers with what they want. . Why might corporations continue marketing the small companies’ products under their original labels? What do you think of that practice? * Because obviously the consumers are turning away from these corporations to the â€Å"more trusted† and smaller organic companies. I think it’s dishonest and deceiving and another of the corporat ions’ ways to make more money. 3. As portrayed in the film, cost and efficiency drive our current food system. Should price be the most important force behind our food industry? Why or why not? How might out food system change if it was driven by other values, like health or environmental sustainability? * I have to admit that price is definitely an important factor behind our current food industry, but it shouldn’t be the most important one. Because if the cost of food is what we’re minding the most, we neglect the other factors that go into the food that the corporations make. If our food system were to be driven by other factors such as health and the environment, then most of our food would definitely be healthier and natural. Chapter VII: From Seed to Supermarket . From Monsanto’s perspective, it is expensive to develop new seeds like these, and the seeds save farmers time and enable them to produce more soybeans. What might be the consequences—both positive and negative—of the company owning the genetic information in the seed? * The positive would have to be that there is a sure efficiency in the production of soybean crops and the demands of the public would always be met. On the negative side, however, is that the farmers don’t really have a say in how their crops are going to really grow or what their crops are going to be for. . Saving seeds from last year’s crop is a tradition farmers have followed for thousands of years. Think of a tradition that has been in your family for a long time. What if you could no longer have this tradition because someone legally claims it as theirs? * We would still do it anyway, but I’m guessing that we won’t talk about it outside of our family as much. We would still do it because it’s not fair. The tradition has been there for such a long time and for â€Å"someone† to legally claim it as theirs is a clear lie and I would not stand for that. 3. Do you think it is fair that one farmer had to settle (say he was guilty) because that was cheaper than trying to fight Monsanto’s lawsuit? Why or why not? * I think it’s unfair. I’m not saying he didn’t do it, because he definitely did. But why should he be held guilty for telling farmers to grow healthier crops? Why should he be charged that much money for being conscious of what GMOs have done to our foods for the last few years? It’s preposterous to think that a corporation is wasting all its money and time on a farmer that wants nothing but the best for the consumers, when it should be spending that money on doing the same thing.

Collaborative Learning

Collaborative Learning Free Online Research Papers The value of collaborative learning has been recognized throughout human history and its effectiveness has been documented through hundreds of research studies. Collaborative learning is now widely recognized as one of the most promising practieces in the field of education. Collaborative learning (CL) is an instructional method that makes use of small, heterogeneous groups of students who work together to achieve common learning goals (Johnson Johnson, 1992). Within group learning, students benefit from sharing ideas rather than working alone. Students help one another so that all can reach some measure of success. The purpose of this review of research is to illustrate the various aspects of collaboration and how collaborative learning reinforces second language acquisition with reference to the theories. In this brief review of research, I first discuss two major theoretical perspectives of collaborative learning. I establish few major themes of collaborative research and review representative research studies that address collaborative activity in classroom settings. Finally, I connect research findings to the theories and outline some critical areas where research is needed on collaboration and language learning in classroom settings. Theoretical Orientation / Motivational Perspective Motivational perspective on collaborative learning focuses primarily on the reward or goal structures. In this perspective, collaborative learning creates a situation in which the only way group members can attain their own personal goals if the group is successful. Social interdependence theory, the most influential theory of the perspective, on collaborative learning suggested that the essence of a group is the interdependence among members (created by common goals), which results in the group being a â€Å"dynamic whole†, so that a change in the state of any member and an intrinsic state of tension within group members motivates movement toward the accomplishment of the desired common goals (Kurt Lewin 1935). Similarly, Skinner’s behavioral learning theory assumes that students will work hard on those tasks for which they secure a reward and will fail to work on tasks that yield no reward or yield punishment. Cognitive Perspective Whereas motivational theories of collaborative learning emphasize the cooperative goals change students’ desire to do academic work, cognitive perspective emphasizes that the interactions among students will increase achievement due to the mental processing which takes place. Cognitive-Development theory can fully illustrate the notion. Vygotsky proposes a central concept zone of proximal development in his theory; it has a great significance to language acquisition. He defines the zone as â€Å"the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers† (1978, p.86). In his view, collaborative activity among learners promotes growth because learners of similar ages are likely to be operating within one another’s proximal zones of development. In other words, unless students work cooperatively, they will not grow intellectually. Vygotsky’s concept corresponds with the Input Hypothesis which attempts to answer the important question of how we acquire language. The hypothesis states that a necessary condition for language acquisition to occur is that the acquirer understands input language that contains structure â€Å"a bit beyond† his or her current level of competence. The hypothesis also presumes that acquisition happens when learners understanding the message instead of form (Krashen 1981). This illustrates the superiority of collaborative learning in language acquisition since its activity establishes an environment where the students communicate with each other to solve problems in a meaningful context. Similarly, Piaget (1926) held that social-arbitrary knowledge – language, values, morality and etc. can be learned only in interactions with others. In his views, learners must engage in some sort of cognitive restructuring or elaboration of material if information is to be retained in memory. Many Piagetians have called for an increased use of collaborative activities in schools since students will learn from one another because in their discussions of the content, cognitive conflicts will arise, inadequate reasoning will be exposed and higher-quality understandings will emerge. Generally, all perspectives on collaboration have common ground; they all predict that collaborative learning will promote higher achievement than would individualistic learning. The following sections discuss a number of representative studies and research findings about collaborative learning. Social Cohesion With the respect to the social interdependence perspective, collaboration promotes group cohesion and a supportive social climate. Some research studies are reviewed in the following to illustrate how collaboration fosters social interdependence among classmates and it gives expression to the motivating effects of working together toward a common goal. Hijzen, Boekaerts and Vedeer (2006) examined relationships between the quality of cooperative learning (CL) and students’ goal preferences and perceptions of contextual factors in the classroom. The researchers expected students’ perception of the quality of CL depends to their goal preferences that they bring into the classroom. The subjects of this study were 1920 students from different secondary and vocational schools in Netherlands. Subjects were invited to complete several self-report questionnaires regarding their goal preferences and perception of contextual factors in the classroom and the quality of CL. The study found that subjects gave most preference to mastery goals, followed by social support goals and belongingness goals. Social support goals had the strongest relationship with the quality of CL. In other words, students who value helping and supporting each other rated the quality of CL higher. The study also found that there is a strong relation between the quality of CL and students’ perceptions of contextual factors, as defined by the type of task, reward systems and CL skills they were taught, in the classroom. Despite the evidence that CL encourages social interdependence, there are conditions under which the kinds of interdependence emerge different effects. In a study by Johnson, Johnson and Stanne (2001), it demonstrated the conditions under which positive interdependence enhances or interferes with individual success and overall group productivity. Two types of positive interdependence were studied: positive goal and positive resource interdependence. Forty-four black American high school students were randomly assigned to the experimental task. It was to master information on map reading and to apply their knowledge in deciding what actions to take to solve the problem. The independent variables were positive goal interdependence and positive resource interdependence. Goal interdependence was operationalized by telling the subjects to work together as a company and resource interdependence was operationalized by dividing the information required into three parts and giving each part to a different member of the group. Thus, in order to complete the task, each group mate had to obtain the information required from other group mates. The findings provided evidence that two sources of positive interdependence promote stronger effects than either source of positive interdependence alone. The presence of positive resource and goal interdependence would promote higher individual achievement than would the presence of positive resource interdependence only. Therefore, when resource interdependence is used, it should be done in combination with positive goal interdependence. Another study by Ghaith (2003) supports the claim that collaborative learning has positive effects on achievement. The study intended to investigate whether CL has more effective than whole-class instruction in promoting the English as Foreign Language reading achievement and the academic self-esteem of the learners. Participants in the study were 56 secondary school EFL learners in Beirut and they were randomly assigned to control and experimental groups. In the study, subjects in the control group were taught by the teachers who carried out reading lessons with using traditional teaching instruction while subjects in the experimental group were taught by teachers who used collaborative learning. The study lasted for 10 weeks and a pretest-posttest control group design was employed and it focused on the variables of academic self-esteem and academic achievement. The study did indicate that the CL is more effective that traditional textbook instruction in improving the EFL reading achievement of the students. Thus, reading achievement in L2 can be improved through small group cooperative interaction among peers in a supportive environment. However, academic self-esteem is unlikely to be improved in the course of short experiments and cooperative interventions. The study by Shachar and Shmuelevitz (1997) differs from the above research. Their study focuses on teachers’ collaboration instead of students’ and how this relates to students’ learning. The study assessed the effects on teachers’ sense of efficacy of a year-long in-service teacher training program on CL. The study hypothesized that teachers who acquire competence with CL methods were reported as having high frequencies of these methods in their classroom and experience high levels of collaboration with colleagues. Their sense of efficacy which can also affect students’ learning and social relation. One hundred twenty-one teachers from nine junior high schools in Israel were selected and trained that they acquired skill in implementing CL methods. This study was conducted over a period of 3 months at the beginning of the second year of the project. During the time, the teachers’ instructional behavior was observed. Two questionnaires about patterns of teacher collaboration in the school and measures of teachers’ efficacy were administered to all the teachers during the second half of the second year. The findings showed that teachers who employed collaborative learning in their classrooms expressed a significantly greater degree of efficacy in promoting the learning of slow students compared to teachers who continued to employ traditional instruction without using CL. The finding also reported that teachers who participate in collaborative staff work are more likely to feel capable of promoting cooperative relations among their students. Therefore, collaboration affected personal teaching efficacy and promoted students’ social relations. Collaborative Discourse Cognitive perspective claims that language is best acquired when it is used in a way that is meaningful to the student. The collaborative learning setting provides opportunities for students to use the language for a specific purpose and express themselves in a functional manner. Especially, a type of language use which is called ‘exploratory talk’ emerges from collaboration when partners engage critically but constructively with each other’s ideas. In the ‘exploratory talk’, learners work together to solve linguistic problems and co-construct language or knowledge about language. The following research studies illustrate how ‘exploratory talk’ enhances language acquisition and development of knowledge. The study by Chinn, O’Donnell and Jinks examined how the discourse of group interaction is structured and whether the discourse structure mediates learning. One hundred and nine students in seven fifth-grade classes in New Jersey participated in the study. They were asked to conducted experiments with electrical circuits in groups of four. After writing their own individual conclusions based on the two circuits they constructed, the students were provided with three conclusions from other group mates to evaluate and discussed the quality of these conclusions. The results of the study indicated that some type of collaborative discourse were significantly associated with reasoning, exploration and explanation. These features can be viewed as the elements of argumentation structures. Thus the fifth graders’ discussions about the quality of the conclusions could be analyzed as argument networks. The results also suggested that more complex argumentation promotes learning, both when the complex arguments are individually constructed and when they are collaboratively constructed. The study by Cohen, Lotan, Abram, Scarloss and Schultz (2002) tested the proposition that providing students with evaluation criteria will improve the character of the discussion as well as the quality of the group product and individual performance. The hypothesis in this study is that the better the quality of the group discussion and product, the better will be the individual performance of group members. In the five classrooms, there were 39 groups of 4-5 students who performed the same experienced group tasks. The subjects had to perform a series of complex instruction regarding the topic of the Afterlife in Ancient Egypt. They are expected to discuss and answer several higher order questions requiring them to deeply explore their resource materials. The subjects were audiotaped for the entire lesson each day and this required 5 days of implementation so that students could rotate through the tasks, give a presentation and discussion. It was found evaluation criteria have a direct effect on the nature of the group discussion in which subjects tended to have more exploratory talk in the group discussion. The study also illustrated that evaluation criteria are a motivational tool helping groups to be more self-critical and increasing their effort to create a superior group product. Through evaluation, the group discussion emerged productive explorative talk which improved the group’s performance. Verplaetse (2000) examined what particular discourse strategies the teacher use to create an interactive classroom during full-class and teacher-fronted discussions. Three middle-school science teachers were selected and their lessons were being observed with three interviews with the teachers afterward. The finding provides a good example of how the teacher’s use of paraphrase and repetition produced a supportive environment where the contributions of all students were accepted and valued. Moreover, it was found that the teacher modeled the process of scientific inquiry aloud for his students and thereby authorized the right to wonder, raise questions and engage in exploratory talk on science topics. In addition to the collaborative discussion that modeled scientific inquiry, another important aspect of this study was the consequence of this dialogic collaboration on the participation of English language learners who volunteered more frequently and participated more actively in the full class discussion. This study illustrates how classroom relations and collaborative were forged through the teacher’s validation of student contributions. Teachers play a critical role in promoting interactions between students and engaging them in the learning process. The study by Gillies (2006) sought to determine if teachers who implement collaborative learning in their classrooms engage in more facilitative, learning interactions than teachers who implement group work only. The study also sought to determine of students in the collaborative groups model their teachers’ behaviors and engage in more positive helping interactions with each other than their peers in the group work groups. Twenty-six high schools’ teachers in Australia volunteered to establish cooperative, small-group activities in their Grades 8 to 10 classrooms for 6 weeks. The teachers were audiotaped twice during these lessons and samples of the students’ language, as they worked in their groups, were also collected at the same time. The results showed that teachers who implement collaborative learning in their classrooms asked more questions and engaged in more mediated-learning behaviors than teachers who implement group work only. The students in the collaborative groups engaged in more verbal behaviors that are regarded as helpful and supportive of group endeavors than their peers in the group-work groups. Thus, when teachers implement collaborative learning, their verbal behavior is affected by the organizational structure of the classroom. Wegerif, Mercer and Dawes (1999) supports the claim that social experience of language use shapes individual cognition. The study assumed that the use of exploratory talk will help children to reason together more effectively when they jointly tackle the problems of a test of reasoning and to develop better ways of using language as a tool for reasoning individually when they work alone on a reasoning test. Sixty British primary school children aged 9-10 and their teachers took part in an experimental teaching programme, which designed to develop primary children’s use of language for reasoning and collaborative activity. Children’s subsequent use of language when carrying out collaborative activity in the classroom was observed and anaylsed and effects on their performance on an individual reasoning test were also investigated. Comparative data were gathered from children in matched control classes. It was found that using exploratory talk helps children to work more effectively together on problem-solving tasks. Children who have been taught to use more exploratory talk make greater gains in their individual scores on a test of reasoning than do children who have not had such teaching. Language Development In this section, a number of research studies are reviewed from the cognitive perspectives which claims that cognition and knowledge are constructed though dialogically interaction. For this reason I have limited the studies in which one can link collaborative dialogue to a particular aspect of second language learning. Reading Kim and Hall (2002) reported on Korean children’s participation in an interactive book reading program and their development of pragmatic competence in English. During the book reading, the researcher promoted with questions, elaborated on the children’s utterances and repeated the children’s contributions by paraphrasing and shaping what they said into a coherent discourse. After completing all collaborative reading sessions, the children engaged in interactional role-play situations based on school-related events. These interactions were analyzed for quantity of words used, context-based vocabulary, utterances and conversational management skill. It was found that the participation of these children in collaborative book reading led to significant changes in their pragmatic ability dealing with a number of words and utterances and conversational management features. Kim and Hall suggested that in the context of interesting texts and collaborative talk, meaningful opportunities for the development of children’s second language competence arise. The procedure used in this study reflects discourse features similar to Verplaets’ study, with similar developmental consequences, i.e., expanded participation in interactions and the children’s growing ability to manage conversation. Collaborative dialogue has also been shown to help students apply comprehension strategies and co-construct knowledge while reading in the study by Klingner, Vaughn and Schumm (1998). They investigated the effectiveness of a cooperative learning approach designed to foster strategic reading in grade four heterogeneouse classrooms. Eighty-five students in 11 day experimental condition were taught by the researchers to apply reading comprehension strategies (â€Å"preview†, â€Å"get the gist† and â€Å"wrap up†) while reading social studies text in small student-led groups. Fifty-six students in control condition did not learn comprehension strategies but receive researcher-led instruction in the same content. A standardized reading test and a social studies unit test were administered as dependent measures to all participants. All of the groups in the intervention condition were audiotaped during the CL strategy implementation sessions for purposes of analyzi ng student discourse Qualitative analysis of the students’ discourse showed that through interacting in their collaborative strategic reading groups, the fourth graders assisted one another in vocabulary comprehension, found the main idea and asked and answered questions about their text. The tests results also indicated that the students in the experimental condition made greater gains in reading comprehension and equal gains in content knowledge. This study implies that students in the intervention condition spent significant time discussing academic content and consistently implemented the reading strategies. Speaking In a conversational analytical study of talk-in-interaction, Mori (2002) examined 12 hours of classroom interaction across two instructional contexts in a university upper-level Japanese as a foreign language classroom. In this study, two contexts were analyzed to understand how talk was constructed in collaboration with peers during a planning sessions and a future discussion with native speaker visitors to the class afterward. It was found that the design of the task (step-by-step requirements for the interview) was the obstacles for the creation of contingent discourse and coherent discussion with the native speaker guests. During the visits, the students’ discourse was highly structured and lacked the contingency-based features of conversation. Ironically, Mori finds that student discourse during the pretask planning involved a mutual exchange of ideas. Moria’s study implies that collaboration is constituted in particular kinds of contingently organized talk. The study by Shachar and Sharan (1994) focused on students’ verbal interaction in multiethnic groups after the students had participated for several months in history and geography classes. The study was conducted with the Group Investigation method or in those taught with the traditional Whole-Class method. Students’ social interaction with members from their own or another ethnic subgroup and their academic achievement were evaluated. The study involved 351 Jewish students from Western and Middle Eastern backgrounds, with 197 in five classes taught for 6 months with the Group Investigation method and 154 in four classes taught for 6 months with Whole- Class method. It was found that all students from the Group Investigation method expressed themselves more frequently and used more words per turn of speech than their peers from classrooms taught with the traditional Whole-Class method. This finding also suggest that students from different ethnic groups in the same class can learn to cooperate and give each other the opportunity to participate in the work of the group without the ignorance of the members of lower status groupmates. It seems that all students in CL classrooms learned to interact constructively, displayed more positive, fewer critical verbal and social interactions with their peers. Face-to-face interaction in speaking activities also can assist learners along the continuum of language acquisition. Lynch (2001) studied whether the transcribing and the discussion of reflection and change result in long-term language acquisition and whether they would be feasible in a classroom setting. In the study, four pairs of college students were asked to transcribe a 90-120 second recorded extract of a role play they had performed in front of the class. After transcribing the role play scripts, the learners could make changes to their original scripts through collaborative negotiation. The teacher then reformulated the revised scripts through correcting grammar and lexis and making necessary changes to clarify meaning. As a final step, the learners compared their own revised scripts with the reformulated version and discussed the differences between the two transcripts with each other and with the teacher. The result indicated that transcribing and editing the transcripts gives learners the chance to renegotiation meanings and draws the learner’s attention to language form and use in a relatively natural way. The study supports the claim that the feedback in the form of self-correction, teacher intervention and peer correction all supported student’s language learning. Writing Other studies in the literature show how collaborative dialogue in reading activities can also result in L2 learning. Swain and Lapkin (2003) examined a pair of grade seven French immersion students’ collaborative work in term of completing a jigsaw story task orally and in writing, comparing their written stories to a reformulated version and responding to a stimulated recall task. The data were coded for all the language-related episodes, defined as any part of the dialogue where learners talk about the language they are producing, question their language use or correct themselves. The analysis of discussions surrounding reformulated texts indicated that approximately two-thirds of reformulations were accepted. During the later independent revisions, both learners were able to revise accurately 78% of the post test items. This indicates the power of collaborative dialogue during the composing, noticing and recall procedures. Vygotsky’s concept of zone of proximal development (ZPD) serves as the theoretical basis for the study of peer collaboration in ESL writing classroom. The purpose of the study by De Guerrero and Villamil (2000) was to observe the mechanisms by which strategies of revision take shape and develop when two learners are working in their respective ZPDs. The participants in this study were two male intermediate ESL college learners, native speakers of Spanish, who were enrolled in an ESL writing course. In the course, the students participated in two revision sessions during which pairs of students revised a composition written by one of them. The pair of subjects was simply instructed to revise the draft and to record all their comments on a tape recorder. The focus of analysis was the dyad’s audiotaped conversation, between a ‘reader’ and a ‘writer’, which was transcribed to the written mode and divided into 16 episodes. The results were found that both the reader and writer became active partners in the revision task with guided support moving reciprocally between each other. The reader played a crucial role as mediator displaying several supportive behaviors which facilitated advancement through the task. Some of these behaviors included explicitly instructing the writer on issues of grammar and recruiting the writer’s interest throughout the interaction. The writer incorporated the majority of the changes discussed with his partner and further revised on his own. The reader also made progress in aspect of L2 writing and revising. As the researchers noted, the opportunity to talk and discuss language and writing issues with each other â€Å"allowed both reader and writer to consolidate and reorganize knowledge of the L2 in structural and rhetorical aspects and to make this knowledge explicit for each other’s benefit† (p.65) Storch (2001) noted that the nature of peer assistance is an important factor to consider in terms of the impact collaborative work can have on learning. His study examined the pattern of pair interaction and whether there were links between the way the dyads interacted and the quality of their written product. The study was conducted in an advanced ESL writing classroom in an Australian university. Most of the students were Asian with writing proficiency ranging from low to upper intermediate. The task used in this study was a writing task given to students in class in preparation for a report. Students worked on the task in self-selected pairs and pair talks were audiotaped and being observed by researchers. Three dyads of conversations were then chosen for analysis. It was found that 3 dyads approached the task differently and the interaction patterns can be defined in a range from non-collaborative to collaborative. In the collaborative pattern, both students contributed to the task and reached co-constructed solutions. The dominant/dominant pair was one in which though both students contributed to the task, assistance is often rejected as there is an attempt of control and domination on the part of both students. In the case of dominant/passive pair, there was one dominant student who appropriated the task and his partner had little contribution. In the expert/novice patter pair, one participant seemed to be more in control of the task but unlike the dominant/passive pair, the expert participant acknowledges the novice and encouraged participation. An analysis of relationship between the text produced by each dyad and language development showed that in collaborative and expert/novice dyads, there were more instances evidence of knowledge development than in other dyads. These findings confirm the importance of the nature of pair interaction for the learning opportunities available to the students. Status Crisis Researchers have shown that collaborative learning can induce many beneficial outcomes. However, some research studies have also shown that the differential status of individuals affected their social interactions and their capacity to solve problems together. These inequalities are related to academic status and cultural differences and personalities between students. The following research studies illustrate the harmful impact on lower status students in the group. Duff (2002) illustrated how classroom interaction in an ethnically and linguistically diverse grade 10 Canadian social studies class attributed identities to students. The research site was a Canadian high school where 50% of the students were ESL learners, most of them are Asian. The researcher observed and recorded the Social Studies class lessons once a week with six-month duration; some of the participants, including the class teacher, were interviewed about their in-class behaviors. There were 17 non-native English speakers out of the 28 students in the course. The class teacher presented social issues and encouraged student to share their perspectives and opinions. Interview comments, combined with observations of in-class social interactions provided evidences that the interactional behaviors of teachers and students during discursive collaborations on social issue created conditions that marginalized some students while reinforcing social recognition to others. For example, non-local students were being silent or provided limited response about their cultural rituals because they were afraid of being criticized in class and being laughed at their English. She emphasizes that â€Å"large numbers of minority students in schools world wide are at considerable risk of alienation, isolation, and failure because of the discourse and interactions that surround them on a daily basis† (Duff 2002, p.216). Matthews and Kesner (2000) investigated the impact that a child’s status among peers has on interactions with other children during collaboration. In the study, six grade-one children of a primary school in southeastern U.S. area were being observed throughout the whole school year. Data was collected from classroom observations with audio and video recording of children participating in literacy events (collaboration) with their classmates. Data also included artifacts of the children’s work, information about the children’s social status among their peers and assessments of the children’s reading ability. The researchers were in the classroom an average of once every 3 days. The information presented in this study focused on a child, Sammy, one of the six focal children. Sammy was characterized as a shy boy by his parents. He had low proficiency of reading ability so reading is the worst academic subject for him. Sammy also received assistance from the school language specialist of minor speech problem. The results of peer nomination and the teacher’s assessment of Sammy’s social status indicated that he is an unpopular student in his class. The classroom observation showed that Sammy was a follower during collaboration activities. He rarely made a suggestion during the literacy events. However, Sammy never appeared upset when his peers assigned him the role of follower or they did not respond to his suggestions. At the end of the school year, he could read only 20 of the 60 words on a first-grade word list and his text reading had only progressed slightly. This implies that participants may not get the most benefit from collaborati ve learning due to the social hierarchy. Chiu’s study (1998) supported that status differences among students yield positive and negative effects for individuals and the group as a whole. In her study, eight students in 9th grade algebra classes in a high school were selected to solve an algebra problem in groups of four. The students filled out pre-activity questionnaires regarding mathematical status and social status and a leadership post-activity questionnaire. At the group level, the results showed that mathematical ability predicted correct solutions whereas quantity of interaction and status did not. Polite evaluation (redressed criticisms) facilitated group work while impolite evaluation (naked criticisms) hindered it. At the individual level, social status positively predicted leadership, negotiation turns and polite redressed criticism in a group whereas mathematical ability positively predicted naked criticisms. These results supported the claim that students with higher social status were socially skillful and polite whereas students with higher mathematical showed their status by being less polite. Baines, Blatchford and Kutnick (2003) suggested that collaborative learning is beneficial to particular age of learners. Their study examined the relationships between the age of students and the grouping practices employed by teachers within classrooms in primary and secondary schools. The data in this study come from three separately paralleled studies that used the same methodology. One project, the Primary Classroom Groupings Projects, examined grouping practices in junior levels. The focus of the second study was on the effects of class size one students learning experiences and group practices in senior primary levels. The third study examined grouping practices in secondary school with junior and senior levels. All three projects involved the use of a grouping questionnaire to collect quantitative data on the nature of the groupings as used in classes. The results showed that there were changes in grouping practices with student age. Students in junior primary classrooms were most likely to be working alone. During the years of senior primary level, students were more likely to experience whole class interactions with the teacher assistance. At the secondary school’s level, group practices were frequently happened since secondary school age students were more likely to engage in peer interaction than primary age children. Training Many educators have observed that participants frequently fail to behavior collaboratively in groups. Some groups reveal negative and insensitive behavior as well as refusal to assist one another. Therefore, some educators strongly recommend team-building or skill-building activities prior to collaborative learning stage. The research in this section show that preparation and time spent on group can definitely make for more productive groups. The study by Naughton (2006) focused on the effect of a cooperative strategy training program on the patterns of interaction that arose as small groups of students participated in an oral discussion task. Five intact classes of high school graduates were randomly assigned to the experimental or control condition. In the control group, this division was random whereas in the experimental groups, students joined the 8 hours of the CL strategy training program. All students took part in the same pretest and posttest discussion task which lasted for 8 minutes. Data taken from the videotapes were analyzed in order to measure changes in overall participation and strategic participation. The pretest showed that prior to strategy training, students generally failed to engage in the types of negotiation moves that have been identified as important for language acquisition. However, the posttest indicated that the strategy training program was largely successful in encouraging students to engage in the act of requesting or giving help; this type of interaction is clearly related to CL. The result also implies that small group work in the L2/FL classroom can be beneficial when learners engage in collaborative dialogue. The study by Gillies and Ashman (1996) compared the effects on behavioral interactions and achievement of cooperative learning in which group members were trained to collaborate to facilitate each other’s learning and cooperative learning in which members were not trained but were merely told to help each other. The study involved 192 Grade six primary school children assigned to one of two experimental conditions. In the Trained condition, students were taught how to collaborate in small groups while in the Untrained condition, children were provided only with the opportunity to work together but were not instructed in the process. The group activities for the two groups were developed around the social studies unit which required students to solve problems. Each group’s student behavior and verbal interactions during the study were videotaped and coded. The results showed that the children in the Trained condition were consistently more cooperative; higher level of motivation, responsive to the need of their peers and provided significantly more explanations to assist each other than their peers in the Untrained condition. In addition, the children in the Trained groups used inclusive language (‘we’ and ‘us’ rather than ‘I’). This provides strong evidence that training children to collaborate facilitates group functioning and has a positive effect on student achievement. Veenman, Denessen, Akker, and Rijt (2005) investigated whether student-teachers who participated in the teacher-training program provided more elaborations during small group work and performed better on a cooperative task than the student-teachers who did not participate in the training program and the effects of the training program on affective-motivational resources of students in collaboration. Participants in the study were teachers from seven primary schools and 24 dyads of sixth-grade students. There were 12 dyads in the treatment group where their schools used CL instruction and practices based on a 2-years staff training of CL with a supplementary teacher-training program focusing on effective helping behaviors. The control group with 12 dyads used CL based on a 1-year staff CL training without a supplementary teacher-training program. All of the students’ dyads were asked to cooperatively solve a math task, which required formal reasoning and discussion. At pre test, Version A of the math task was used; at posttest, Version B was used. All of the sessions were video and audio recorded and later transcribed. After completion of the math task at pretest, all of the students were also administered a questionnaire addressing their help-seeking intentions and the nature of their achievement goals. A statistically significant treatment effect was found that the treatment dyads provided more high-level elaborations than the control dyads. The use of high-level elaborations was also positively related to student achievement. The results of the study underline the need to structure learning in small groups; discourse features as help seeking, help giving, provision of reasons and exploratory talk must be practiced and reinforced. Implications for Classroom Practices and Further Research Several implications for language pedagogy can be drawn from the findings of these studies. First, as language teachers, we have to ensure that students are provided with multiple and varied opportunities to engage in meaningful interactions in the target language. To make the interactions meaningful, we need to encourage learners to relate the topical content to those personal experiences and social relationship that are real thus of significance to them. Motivating learners to make connections between their own and others’ background knowledge and to share these connections with each other promotes their extended engagement in their interactions. Second, in the opportunities for interaction that we make available, we must ensure that not only the cognitive but the affective dimensions are considered. As shown in these studies, making interpersonal connections with each other in their classroom interactions fostered a sense of community among the members; this helps to cr eate a motivating learning environment. Third, language learners of all ages and levels are able to construct rich interactions. Thus we need to create opportunities for them to demonstrate their interpersonal skills without the explicit help or directed attention of the teacher. Finally, several questions for possible study are suggested by these studies. First, given the significance of interpersonal relationships to language learning found in these studies, how do we create and sustain rapport among individuals who come from varied backgrounds or who are reticent to participate? Moreover, in the century of high technology how social processes are enabled by new communications tools and resources such as the Internet, e-mail and videoconferences. In addition, how these relationships and processes interact with language learning. The last concern is the need for more longitudinal data. Although most of the studies link language development to the particular practices, they do not actually document specific changes in learners’ use of language in their data. The only way to truly understand the occurrence of language development in oneself is to require more long-term investigations. References Baines, Ed., Blatchford, P., Kutnick, P (2003). Changes in grouping practices over primary and secondary school. International Journal of Educational Research, 39, 9-34. Chinn, C.A., O’Donnell, A.M. Jinks, T.S. The structure of discourse in collaborative learning. Department of Educational Psychology. The State University of New Jersey. Chiu, Ming Ming (1998). Status Effects in Group Problem Solving: Group and Individual Level analyses. Educational Resource Information Center. The Chinese University of Hong Kong. Cohen, E., Lotan, R, Abram, P., Scarloss, B Schultz, S (2002). Can Groups Learn? Teachers College Record, 104(6),1045-1068 De Guerrero M.C. Villamil O.S. (2000). Activating the ZPD: Mutual scaffolding in L2 peer revision. The Modern Language Journal, 84, 51-68. Duff, P.A. (2002). The discursive co-construction of knowledge, identity, and difference: An ethnography of communication in the high school mainstream. Applied Linguistics, 23(3), 289-322. Ghaith, G. (2003). Effects of the Learning Together Model of Cooperative Learning on English as a Foreign Language Reading Achievement, Academic Self-Esteem, and Feelings of School Alienation. Bilingual Research Journal, 27:3 Gillies, R.(2006). Teachers’ and students’ verbal behaviors during cooperative and small-group learning. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 171-287 Gillies, R Ashman A (1996). Teaching collaborative skills to primary school children in classroom-absed work groups. Learning and Instruction, 6(3), 187-200 Hijzen, D, Boekaerts, M Vedder, P (2006). The relationship between the quality of cooperative learning, students’ goal preferences and perceptions of contextual factors in the classroom. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 47, 9-12. Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T. Stanne M.B (2001). Impact of Goal and Resource Interdependence on Problem-Solving Success. The Journal of Social Psychology, 129(5), 621-629 Johnson, R.T. Johnson, R.T. (1992). Implementing cooperative learning. Contemporary Education, 63, 173-180. Kim, D, and Hall, J.K. (2002). The role on an interactive book reading program in the development of second language pragmatic competence. The Modern Language Journal, 86(3), 332-348. Klingner, J.K., Vaughn, S., Schumm, J.S. (1998). Collaborative strategic reading during social studies in heterogeneours fourth-grade classroom. The Elementary School Journal, 99, 3-22. Krashen, S. D. (1981). Effective Second Language Acquisition: Insights from Research. The Second language classroom. Oxford University Press, Inc. Lewin, K. (1935). A dynamic theory of personality. New York: McGraw-Hill. Lynch, T. (2001). Seeing what they meant: Transcribing as a route to noticing. ELT Journal, 55, 124-132 Matthews, Mona Kesner, John (2000). The silencing of Sammy: One struggling reader learning with his peers. International Reading Association, 53(5), 382-390 Mori, J. (2002). Task design, plan, and development of talk-in-interaction: An analysis of a small group activity in a Japanese language classroom. Applied Linguistics, 23(3), 323-347. Naughton, N.(2006). Cooperative Strategy Training and Oral Interaction: Enhancing Small Group Communication in the Language Classroom. The Modern Language Journal, 90,(ii). Piaget, J. (1926). The Language and Thought of the child. New York: Harcourt Brace. Shachar, H Sharan S (1994). Talking, Relating, and Achieving: Effect of Cooperative Learning and Whole-Class Instruction. Cognition and Instruction, 12(4), 313-353. Shachar, H Shmuelevitz, H (1997). Implementing Cooperative learning, Teacher Collboration and Teachers’ Sense of EFFICACY IN Heterogeneous Junior High Schools. Contemporary educational psychology, 22, 53-72 Storch, N.(2001). How collaborative is pair work? ESL tertiary students composing in pairs. Language Teaching Research 5, 29-53 Swain, M. Lapkin, S. (2003). Talking it through: Two French immersion learners’ response to reformulation. International Journal of Educational Research, 37, 285-304 Veenman, S, Denessen, E, Akker, A Rijt, J (2005). Effects of a Cooperative Leraning Program on the Elaborations of Students During Help Seeking and Help Giving. American Educational Research Journal, 42(1), 115-137 Verplaetse, L.S. (2000). Mr. Wonder-ful: Portrait of a dialogic teacher. Second and foreign language learning through classroom interaction, 223-241 Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in Society (ed. M. Cole, V. John Steiner, S. Scribner, and E. Souberman). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wegerif, R, Mercer N, Dawes L (1999). From social interaction to individual reasoning: an empirical investigation of a possible sociocultural model of cognitive development. Learning and Instruction. Walton Hall. Research Papers on Collaborative LearningThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseStandardized TestingResearch Process Part OneEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenOpen Architechture a white paperBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of SelfInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesThree Concepts of PsychodynamicHip-Hop is ArtAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into Asia

BlackBoard Online Learning Environment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

BlackBoard Online Learning Environment - Essay Example I find flimsy the argument that we need the upgrade because "upgrades" can improve the system. If a system is already efficient and reliable, then there is no need to change the system. It is said that other universities have already implemented it making it necessary for us to follow suit. I say that this matter should not take on a fashionable nature. You don't just go on changing an online learning environment because others are doing so. I believe that we are free to decide for ourselves what course of action we should take. If, however, the administration still pushes thru with the project then they must charge it to the students at a lower price tag. I personally think that the $150 tag is way beyond what we expect of the price of an upgrade. One must remember that even upgrades for legitimately acquired software can be downloaded freely from the manufacturer's website. How come that the upgrade could cost so much Furthermore, considering the number of students availing of Blackboard, we find that the price tag is quite high leading us to speculate that it is becoming more of an income generating measure. Since I am talking about costs and the inappropriateness of the additional fee, let us discuss on the costs that the school will incur in availing of the upgrade.

Fiat Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Fiat - Assignment Example There are many reasons such as inflation, increased competitiveness from Japanese and Korean manufacturers, the emergence of low cost Asian manufacturers, change in policies and the global crisis. As a result, huge losses have been faced in terms of sales and turnover. There are many internal issues as well that have added to the existing problem of Fiat. This can be handled by identifying the key opportunities. The transformation of opportunities into strengths is the need of Fiat to come out from the crisis. Legal and consumer trends are looking for green technology and gas- efficient cars. This can be a major advantage for Fiat as it has always been addressing environmental concerns. In this report, an analysis of all such areas has been done which have contributed towards the decline of the Fiat’s performance and ranking in the automotive industry. The aim is to figure out the problematic areas where change and direction is required. In the first section, the background of the company is discussed. The external factors such as economic or technological which are the major indicators of growth or decline in any industry are evaluated to understand the current market trends and situation. The major challenges faced by Fait group are outlined keeping in mind its strengths and weaknesses. In the end, recommendations are given in the form of solutions that must be incorporated in the company’s strategy to address the major areas of concern. Company Background: Fiat is one of the founders of European Automotive Industry and has a history of more than 100 years. The acronym of FIAT is Fabbrica Italiana Automobili Torino. It was established on the eleventh of July 1899 by a group of investors and has its headquarters in Turin, Italy. Today, it has been operating in more than 61 countries with 1,063 companies. It has diversified into a pool of industries and has been designing and selling cars, trucks, construction & agriculture equipment, engines, mil itary vehicles, aviation etc. At the time of its inception, Giovanni Agnelli, one of the members of the Board of Directors, stood out and was known as the company’s innovator and mastermind. He had a great strategic vision and determination to make the company highly successful. Due to his utmost efforts along with the other members of the company, Fiat gained recognition at a very early stage and it is said to produce more than 10% percent of Italy’s GDP. In 1900, the first factory was opened in Carso Dante with a workforce of 150 workers who produced 24 cars. As of 2009, only the domestic workforce has reached to 198,348 workers. It has a workforce of about 223,000 people. Out of which, 111,000 are outside Italy. Fiat logo was designed in 1904 which has become a status symbol due to the superior and world-class cars manufactured by the company. During the First World War, it aimed at the production of munitions. With the rapid technological changes, developments were made at the railway sector, commercial vehicles etc. The year 1958 was marked as an economic boom for Italy which was facing a downfall due to the advent of the Second World War. The automobile sector also grew as it was the driving force for the Italian economy. Fiat experienced an increased production along with the exports from 1965 to 1977. In the year 1979, an independent automobile sector came into existence which was named as Fiat Auto S.P.A which included Fiat, Autobianchi, Ferrari, Abarth

Reflection on Personal Development and Self-Awareness

Reflection on Personal Development and Self-Awareness The Voyage Introduction The title of this essay is The Voyage . Its a reflective essay, and I am using the Gibbs Reflective Cycle (Gibbs, 1988) as a template for this exercise. Its a critical reflection on the importance of personal development and self-awareness, which are necessary if one is successful in becoming, and remaining a councillor. In simple terms its a examination of ones outlook on life, from their own behaviours and to how they interact with other people. By self examination and peer feedback facilities me to become more aware about myself. Conscious of my privileges, prejudices, perceptions, core values, beliefs ,and behaviours. Aware of my strengths, weaknesses and blind spots. This development of self awareness, along with the ability to self reflect on ones life experiences, is viewed as not only necessary, but professionally ethical, as its practice enables a councillor and clients to remain safe and emotionally detached from future relationships they are trying to develop. Because its so easy for a counsellor to fall into the trap of forming a sense of identity or empathy while counselling clients. But its vital for both, especially the councillor, that they remain emotionally detached at all times. Being objective is the main difficulty when assessing our personal development and self awareness. How we see and think of ourselves can be quite different from what other people see us. Only by rigorous personal inventories and feedback from others can we find a yardstick which with we can measure our ethics, and our professional standards which are vital in providing a safe environment when forming a relationship with our clients. Its only by this sometimes painful process of becoming more self aware can we then embarque on our lifelong personal development, and be better equipped in dealing with the challenges presented by possible conflicts, and enable us to be more attuned and less vulnerable with our relationships with future clients. The Voyage According to Plato the famous philosopher Socrates once said The greatest good of a man is daily to converse about virtue, and all that concerning which you hear me examining myself and others, andthatthe life which is unexamined is not worth living (Plato,Apology). This course, which is a diploma in the psychology of counselling, has contained within it a module on personal development and self awareness. This module challenges us to examine our core values, beliefs and prejudices and behaviours.. One of the requirements to becoming a good councillor is to know which way your moral compass points, and to be aware of any prejudices, privileges and blind spots, and to remain emotionally uninvolved. To achieve this one has to embarque on a new journey of fearless self analysis. We were advised to keep a journal, in which we could record events on one side and our feelings of these events on the other side. This has provided me with very valuable insights into my personality while compiling this essay. Also this paper is a reflective essay, and so we must immerse ourselves in self reflection. The goal of this exercise is to make us more self aware. Aware of our personality traits and prejudices, our core values, habits, emotions, and the psychological forces that dictate our behaviour. This comprises of all events, good and bad, acquired throughout our entire lifetime that shapes who we are as a person today, and what we have to offer any potential client. While our tutor explained the module in greater detail, warning us that it could be a emotional rollercoaster for some of us, I could sense the nervous atmosphere throughout the classroom. After all its not easy dissecting ones entire lifetime, reliving all the events, good and bad, questioning ones reactions, the lessons learned or forgotten, and most importantly how these events shaped our personalities, attitudes, and our behaviour. I could see the importance in such an exercise. To become a good councillor requires change, and the first step in making a change of any kind is to beawarethat a change is wanted or needed. This can only be achieved by getting to know oneself by immersing themselves in various scenarios, reflecting on past events, and questioning their reactions and what thoughts were felt at the time. This is the path to self awareness, and its only by self awareness one gets to know what are the strengths and weaknesses they poses that can achieve better results in their role as a councillor, and with their clients. Unlike many of my classmates I thought I had an advantage. The advantage in question is Im an alcoholic and a drug addict, thankfully in recovery, five years clean and sober. Ive been to rehab, several times. The most popular method of treatment used is called the Minnesota Model (Hazelden 1949) , this has developed into the more widely known twelve step program. Today there are many similar twelve step programs. But there is one important step common to all groups, that is step four, which reads: Made a searching and fearless moral inventory of ourselves (The Big Book: April 10, 1939, Alcoholics Anonymous World Services, Inc ). My feelings was that in my case it was already done and dusted. In overcoming my addiction I had to dig deep very deep. From my earliest childhood memories up to the present day. I didnt find it easy, but it changed the person I thought I was completely, and was a vital tool to my recovery. The life of a councillor will always be a work in progress, there is no such thing as perfection, but one should always be as self aware as possible, and continue completely and honestly with their personal development. This includes sourcing important feedback from superiors and colleagues, which proves valuable information as to how others view you. Like our tutor explained, the path to personal development and self awareness can be very difficult and emotional. The pain of dredging up memories long buried can be to some too much to endure. But the simple fact is just this, the pain one experiences while undertaking this difficult task, comes in not the journey, it comes by not having the courage to embarque on such a journey. Fear that one has to challenge and change some thought processes and behaviours that they have used and relied upon for some time. Often through various defence mechanisms that they may not be even conscious of. The journey of self discovery can be a difficult one, but I was first in line to buy a ticket, confident I had already been there, and if there were some omissions, I was eager to discover them. I viewed my life story as an open book, and was comfortable in disclosing any of my many shortcomings, to anyone at anytime. However I soon realised it was far from done and dusted. To maintain abstinence we have to always seek self awareness, and continue our personal development. In doing so we have to be completely honest and humble. Completing step four of a twelve step program is like looking at your reflection in a mirror. You only see your shortcomings through your own eyes. The fact that others may see you differently felt slightly uncomfortable, due to the possibility that I may be someone different to whom I thought I was. Over the next two months we sometimes engaged in groups to discuss and debate various topics. One of those being, what are the effects of modern society, and how people living in congested inner cities, with no community can lead to future mental health problems. I once thought of such people as scum. Undeserving of any free handouts. It would be true that I viewed these people as narcissistic parasites. Freeloaders who only existed by terrifying innocent and vulnerable people, and who should be locked up to protect decent honest people. However I began to realise that these same people were victims of a society that judged and condemned them, a society of which I was a part of. I realised that these people didnt have a choice as to which culture and society they were born into. A society which denied them equal access to education, sports and pastimes, marginalising them to such an extent that the easiest path to fill the vacuum they felt was through violence, crime, addiction, and most unfortunately suicide. I learned through enrolling in this course that it was they who were the victims. I grew convinced that the culture and society they lived in, was one we created for them. I soon formed the opinion that the root of these problems was a result of poor parenting. By poor parenting I mean stressed parenting. Stress caused by economic poverty, violence, unemployment, dysfunctional societies, abandoned mothers, poor housing, no access to education, crime, addiction etc. I argued that the problem started from birth, and possibility pre-birth as stress hormones in the mother has been proved as having a negative effect on the unborn foetus. (Verny & Kelly 1981). I was, and still felt that these problems were caused by poor or no attachment to any care giver because nobody cared. I also stated Bowleys opinion which was the infant and young child should experience a warm, intimate, and continuous relationship with his mother (or permanent mother substitute) in which both find satisfaction and enjoyment, and that not to do so may have significant and irreversible mental health consequences ( Bowlby, 1951). I also argued that in my opinion it was a Self fulfilling Prophesy that a Mother, who herself never had any attachment or continuous relationship with her own Mother, while also experiencing possible mental health problems, would give birth to a child whose template of care will be identical to her own, thereby ensuring that the chain of dysfunction remains intact. Another example was related to colour, race, and privilege. We were shown a movie directed by Lee Mun Wha called (The color of fear 1994). This entailed of a group comprising of Eight men, two African American, two Latinos, two Asian American and two Caucasians. The discussion was about race, especially the racial experiences as seen through each others eyes. in America. The exchanges were often dramatic, and sought to clarify the pain caused by racism in North America. In this movie the people of colour expressed their racial experiences and problems in American society compared to the two Caucasians in the group. As the discussion developed one of the African Americans became quite animated if not abusive towards one of the Caucasians in the group. The reaction of the Caucasian was one of surprise. He stated that he often employed these people of colour, and that some of them were his closest friends. He was obviously surprised at being portrayed as a racist. The other coloured people also expressed similar views, though in a calmer fashion. My first interpretation was that the Caucasian in question was being harshly treated. After all it was he who employed and befriended people of colour. As the discussion developed I began to realise some privileges that Caucasians poses and may be unaware of. The structure of American society was built by white Caucasian people of European descent dating back to the colonization of the continent. Any other race such as people of African, Asian, Latino origin arrived later, either through slavery, immigration, or economic need. It was these later arrivals along with native Americans who had to comply with the status quo, which was created by the Founding Fathers (Brown Jul 1976). by white European decedents. I began to realise that the debate may not about hard racism like the violent protests in the US during the1960s human rights movement, (New World Encyclopedia contributors , 05/11/2014) which eventually led to the passing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (congresslink.org, 2014). My interpretation is that its more like passive discrimination, and that the real issue may be inequality rather than racism, especially economic inequality. The US is one of most unequal societies in the world. Its inequality is now at Great Depression levels (Saez & Zucman 2014) However theres another term called Colour Blindness ( Doob, 2012). The author describes this process as allowing whites to ignore the disadvantages of coloured or non-white population. Doob also argues that white people may believe they live in a world in which racial discrimination no longer exists, but their behaviour often consists of racialized practices. My final analyses of the movie is simply that the Caucasian in question was Colour Blind but was not conscious of the fact. This I believe is because he never discriminated against such people, while also knowing at the same time such practices are widespread. From the irate African American point of view I believe he was angry that Caucasians had the privilege of deciding to play the Race Card or not, while not having this privilege himself, he may have viewed it as a prejudice not evoked, rather than exercising a privilege to which the Caucasian was unaware of. This movie brought into my consciousness some privileges I was totally unaware of. Examples such as race, religion, education, strong family bonds, access to healthcare etc. are some of the privileges I enjoy that many of the people I referred to at the start of this essay dont have. This leads to the question, am I racist? When referring to members of the travelling community, who are Irelands largest ethnic minority, I, like many others are of the opinion that its the minority of travellers that cause the most conflicts. In my opinion it is these people who are responsible for the discrimination experienced by them. Regarding travellers, I have witnessed both sides of their behaviour and culture. For thirty years I was a rural publican. I served travellers on many occasions, not in large groups, but in small groups of two or three that I knew would cause no problems. But unfortunately sooner or later these would arrive in larger groups. These larger groups would include the troublesome minority mentioned above. This would always result in expulsion from the premises. Always my main complaint would be why dont these people take responsibility for the troublesome minority? Instead of attempting to dissuade these minorities they seemed to close ranks and support them. Because my regular customers, to whom I relied on to make a living, objected to their presence, I felt I had no choice but to impose a blanket ban on all travellers. I dont think Im racist towards these people. My decisions were based on pragmatism rather than race. Unfortunately this seems to be the norm throughout todays society, even though some self rightness people object, stating its illegal for this discrimination. But the fact remains that all businesses have the right to refuse service, without having to provide a reason. Since leaving the trade I have come into contact with many of these people and they have treated me with the utmost respect. They are quite aware of the predicament I faced, and understood why I had to be pragmatic in choosing my regular and loyal customers over their unwanted presence. I now see in them a strong moral code. They are deeply religious. But unlike many devout, they also have an unconditional faith to match. A faith to which I have a unconditional respect. However I still question why they dont call to account the small minority of trouble makers who tarnish all the decent members of their identity and culture. Conclusion The two subjects discussed above are just two examples of the advantage of applying Personal development. There are many other examples where personal development and self awareness would be beneficial. All types of counselling present new challenges, wither counselling for depression, addiction, anxiety, bereavement, suicide etc. The fact that when we examine these in greater detail it results in a change of our point of view, we become more aware of subtleties and inaccurate assumptions. We become aware of different views which people revile. In other words it enables us to be more self aware. Because only counsellors who are aware of their own skills and knowledge can successfully help a client, Personal development and self awareness are vital. Today the benefits of personal development and self awareness have become more widespread in society. Practices such as mindfulness, yoga, meditation and other eastern philosophies are now widespread. More and more people practice some disciplines above. People, especially I, now question the narcissistic nature of western capitalism. I question is this the path to personal wellbeing and happiness? I, for one think not. I will end this essay with a quote from ex US President Jimmy Carter. â€Å"Human identity is no longer defined by what one does, but rather by what one owns.† To own ones soul is true freedom. Only self awareness and personal development makes this possible. The End Bibliography Bowlby, J.(1951) Maternal care and mental health, Pg 51 World Health Organization Monograph(Serial No. 2) Brown Richard D. (Jul 1976) The Founding Fathers of 1776 and 1787 A Collective View, pp.465-480. William and Mary Quarterly,3rd Ser., Vol. 33, No. 3 (Jul. 1976). Dirksen Congressional Center. (2014) congresslink.org. Available at: http://www.congresslink.org/print_basics_histmats_civilrights64text.htm [Accessed on 17/11/2014] Doob C.B., (2012) Social inequality and social stratification in US society. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson, 2013. Print. Gibbs, G.(1988)Learning by Doing: A Guide to Teaching and Learning Methods(London, Further Education Unit) Minnesota Model: Hazelden (1949)Available at http://www.hazelden.org/web/public/minnesotamodel.page [accessed on 17/11/2014] New World Encyclopedia contributors, (2014), African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)Available at: :http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=African-American_Civil_Rights_Movement_(1955-1968)&oldid=985152 [Accessed on 17/11/2014] Plato,(Apology, section 38) Saez, E & Zucman,G (2014), Wealth equality in the United States since 1913, University of California–Berkeley & London School of Economics. The Big Book: (April 10, 1939, Alcoholics Anonymous World Services, Inc ). The color of fear (1994) directed by Lee Mun Wha.USF Urban Education & Social Justice 1994. Thomas R. Verny T R & Kelly J, 1982, The Secret Life of the Unborn Child, Published July 15th 1982 by Dell.

Hum/130 Final

Buddhism HUM/130 January 13, 2013 Buddhism In this paper we will put to an end to the ongoing question if the Buddhists are bowing down to Idols or Gods and why they do what they do. This paper will go into detail about the temple that I went to and the different tours that I was able to go on and the interview I was able to hold. I will also go into great detail about what you experience during one of the services in the Main Shrine. The Hsi Lai Temple sits on 15 acres of land and has a floor area of 102,432 sq. ft. nd is located at 3456 Glenmark Drive, Hacienda Heights CA 91745. The architecture when you first drive up is mind blowing and beautiful. The architecture stays true to the traditional styles of buildings, gardens, and statuary of the ancient Chinese monasteries. They started the planning and building of the temple in 1978 and finished the building ten years later in 1988. Hsi Lai means â€Å"coming west† and signifies the dedication of the Fo Guang Shan Buddhist O rder to spreading the teachings of the Buddha. Fo Guang Shan is the largest monastery and covers over 370 acres.When you walk up the first set of steps you come to what they call the gate. On the top part of the sign it says Hsi Lai Temple which again means â€Å"coming west† and then on the four pillars it says the four universal vows, which are â€Å"to save all sentient beings, to eradicate all worries, to study the boundless Dharma, and to attain supreme Buddhahood. † After you walk up the steps from the lower parking lot where the gate is you walk up more steps to the upper parking lot and then from their you walk up more steps to what they call the Bodhisattva Hall.Bodhisattvas are enlightened beings that made a vow to selflessly serve others with loving-kindness and compassion and are committed to liberating all beings from suffering. It is said that each one of the bodhisattvas represents a virtuous quality essential to all Buddhists. When talking about the bod hisattvas they made a point to make sure that we understood that when we saw that people were bowing to them that they were not bowing to an idol, but rather a sign of showing respect and seeking their guidance to develop the virtuous qualities they represent. Bowing also shows our own humility and the curbing of our ego.There are five bodhisattvas are: Samantabhadra Bodhisattva which is symbolic of great practice, and helping us achieve more discipline in our daily life, Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva which was known for his great vow to help all beings in hell and would not stop till hell was emptied of all beings, Maitreya Bodhisattva is the future Buddha and is the symbol of great benevolence and is often referred to as Happy Buddah, Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva which symbolizes the perfection and loving-kindness, and Manjusri Bodhisattva which is known for great wisdom which empowers one to distinguish universal morality from wrongdoing.Underneath the five bodhisattva are engraved Chine se characters from the Diamond Sutra. Next to the Heart Sutra the Diamond Sutra is the most widely read of the Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra, and is highly valued among sects in Chan Buddhism.While I was at the His Lai Temple I found that they have an information where you can go on two different types of tours of their temple: the first being a self-guided audio tour where they give you a cd player and it gives you valuable information about the temple and all its rooms and buildings as well as the gardens and information on the statues that are found throughout the temple, The second type of tour they offer is with a docent who is more than willing to answer any questions that may come up during the tour, while they inform you about everything within the temple.The two gardens I was able to see within the temple was: the first being the Arhat Garden where the eighteen arhats are seated. The Arhats have realized the truth of no-self and that all is a composite of the five aggregates dep endant on other phenomena originally empty and subject to impermanence. It is said that the eighteen Arharts were able to overcome the difilements of greed, anger, and ignorance.The eighteen Arhats are: Cudapanthaka which is the door watching arhat, Jivaka which is the heart exposing arhat, Vajraputra which is the persuading arhat, Subinda which is the pagoda holding arhat, Panthaka which is the arhat with stretched arms, Kalika which is the dust cleaning arhat, Bhadra which is the arhat that crossed the river, Pindola which is the arhat with long eyebrows, Nakula which is the silently seated arhat, Ajita which is the arhat riding the deer, Maitreya which is the tiger taming arhat, Angaja which is the arhat with a sack, Vananasim which is the arhat under the banana tree, Rahula which is the arhat in deep conversation, Manakassapa which the dragon subduing arhat, Kanakabharadavaja which is the arhat holding the alms bowl, Nagasena which is the ear cleaning arhat, and Kanakavatsa whic h is the jolly arhat. The second garden is the Avalokitesvara Garden. Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva is seated on a giant rock with both her attendants, Shanci and Longnu who are standing beside her.Surrounding the pond are the four Deva Kings: Virudhaka of the Southern Kingdom which is holding the sword, Virupaksa of the Western Kingdom which is holding the dragon, Dhanada of the Northern Kingdom which is holding the umbrella, and the Dhrtarastra of the Eastern Kingdom which is holding a sitar. The four Deva Kings are revered as guardians who protect devout sentient beings from being harmed by unwholesome elements. Standing around the four Deva Kings are the four Dragon Kings of the Four Seas. The flowing water in the garden is symbolic of the Dharma water flowing everywhere to purify people’s minds. Although the Buddhist love informing people of their religion and teaching you about their beliefs. They are really not very forth coming when it comes to helping someone who is the re for a school assignment.I was asked by the individual to leave his name out and was further informed that they do not normally do this kind of interview. When asked about the holidays and traditions he said the most important holiday is Wesak Day which comes in May on the day of the full moon. As for traditions he said that it all depends on the form of Buddhism tradition that you followed. When asked how has his life has been shaped by the Buddhism religion he said that it has made him a more understanding person to what he called the true nature of life. When asked what the biggest challenge is to the Buddhist religion he said that with all beliefs the biggest challenge is changing you.He has been practicing Buddhism since he was born and was taught by monks and other teachers about the Buddhist religion. When asked if there were any dietary restrictions, he did not come out and say that you had to be vegan but stated that it was more wholesome to be vegan. During our interview I found that it was real simple to become a Buddhist and that all you really have to do is follow the teachings. After that question he seemed to be in a real hurry to end the interview but I thanked him for his time and let him know that what I was able to get answered was very helpful. When it came to compairing this religion to another I chose Christianity, not because it was the easier to compare because I found them to have very obvious differences.In Christianity when you become a Christian you accept God into your heart as Lord and Savior and then are baptized as a symbol of the washing of your sins. When you become a Buddhist you just start following the teachings of the Buddha. The other difference that stood out to me was that Christians believe in a heaven and hell and Buddhist believe that hell is only in the mind. Christians believe that when you die you go to heaven to be with your Lord and Savior, Buddhist believe that when you are done with this life you are reincar nated in the next life. I found this religion to be incredibly interesting as well as beautiful. This religion is all about selflessness, which I found in this day and age to be comforting.In order to become a Buddhists you, you are told to give up all your worldly possessions. Today, everything is about worldly possessions from the cell phone that they have the designer clothes they own, to the car that they drive. When the subject of material possessions is brought up it starts making you think about what is really important in your life and how much thought you actually put into material possessions. I have found that people say that their family and friends are important, but if someone were to ask them to give up these possessions what do you think they would say? These people would tell you that you were out of your mind and then proceed to give you every excuse under the sun on why they could not do this.I believe that it takes an amazing person to be able to put someone else ’s life before their own and to truly be devoted unconditionally. As I watched the monks interact with people throughout the times I was there it seemed like they were truly at peace and seemed like they had it all figured out when it came to life. When I first started the assignment I thought that it was going to be stuffy and that I would have to deal with someone who did not want to truly be in the place of having to help someone with a school paper. I found that to be completely false and actually found that not only the monks were willing to answer questions, but all the staff members were happy to answer whatever questions that anybody came up with.At the end of this assignment I found that Buddhism not only left you with such a serine feeling not only while you were in the temple but when you left it made you feel like you could accomplish anything if you just believed. They believe that the only way to truly achieve happiness is by giving up yourself and start paying more attention to others. References: An Introduction to Buddhism. (2000). Retrieved from http://webspace. ship. edu/cgboer/buddhaintro. html Religious Tolerance. (2011). Retrieved from http://www. religioustolerance. org/buddhism. htm buddhanet. (2013). Retrieved from https://ecampus. phoenix. edu/secure/aapd/cwe/citation_generator/web_01_01. asp

Ethical Theories

Ethical Theories ETH/316 April 9, 2013 Ethical Theories Introduction Ethics is system of moral principles, the way individuals conduct themselves with respect to the right and wrong of their actions and to the good and bad of any motives and ends of such actions. Ethics are instilled in individuals since they were children by parents, teachers, and loved ones. This paper will show the similarities and differences between virtue theory, utilitarianism, and deontological ethics. Similarities and Differences Understanding the similarities between virtue theory, utilitarianism, and deontological ethics, they first must be defined.Boylan (2009) stated, â€Å"Virtue ethics is also sometimes called agent based or character ethics. It takes the viewpoint that in living your life you should try to cultivate excellence in all that you do and all that others do† (p. 133). Individuals who judge others by his or her character rather than his or her actions, exemplifies the virtue theory of ethics. Utilitarianism is defined as a theory that an action is morally right when that action is for the greater good of a group rather than just an individual (Boylan, 2009).Utilitarianism theory is based upon creating the greatest good for a number of people. An individual can be overlooked in order to achieve a greater goal for all individuals involved. Deontology ethics is a moral theory that suggests that an individual’s duty to do a certain task because the action, itself, is right, and not through any other sorts of calculations—such as the consequences of the action (Boylan, 2009). Basically the theory suggests that individuals have a moral obligation to follow certain rules that are deemed unbreakable.Virtue theory determines the good and bad traits of a person over a long period of time. Utilitarianism theory also finds the good in a person – provides guidance for behavior and enables people to know what differentiates as a good moral choice. Deontol ogy recommends an action based upon principle. Utilitarianism is the end justifies the mean while deontology is the end does not justify the means. Virtue theory is a broad term that relates to the individuals character and virtue in morals rather than doing their duty or acting to bring about good choices. Personal ExperienceFrom the time we are able to walk and talk we are given rules from our parents. Those rules are not given as punishment, but to guide us in life to know what is right from wrong. We are taught morals on how to act, how to treat others, not to lie or be disrespectful. We are taught virtues that were instilled in our parents from their parents and passed on from generation to generation in hopes that we learn from their past mistakes. They place values in us that we will grow up to do the right things in life and teach others and to lead by example. ConclusionEthics is something everyone learns from a young age and individuals either grow with it or they choose t o follow another path in life that may not be as good as it should have been. Ethics is learned it is not something that is already in place. Some people go above and beyond, why others falter. People all have a choice in life as the path they travel down. Every individual should instill some form of ethics within them so the world could be a better place to live in. Reference Boylan, M. (2009). Basic Ethics: Basic ethics in action (2nd ed. ). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Ethical Theories Morals define our character; ethics dictate the working of a social system. Ethics point towards the application of morality. In the wake of this understanding, national, social and workplace ethics are based on the abstract moral codes adopted and adhered to by each member of the group. Ethics lay down a set of codes that people must follow. Ethics are relative to peers, profession, community, society and nation. Morals are and are dependent on an individual’s choice or beliefs or religion and can mean doing the right or wrong thing.An example to help you understand the difference would be: Abortion is legal and therefore medically ethical, while many people find it personally immoral. Ethics can be relatively simple to follow, while applying morals can be decidedly tougher. There can be a moral dilemma, but not an ethical one. While good morals represent correct and upright conduct, ethics act more as guidelines. Ethics are applicable or adhered to by a group or community or society, whereas morals relate to individuals.As we can see from the above discussion that ethics and morals may seem similar, but are in fact rather distinct. While morals constitute a basic human marker of right behavior and conduct, ethics are more like a set of guidelines that define acceptable behavior and practices for a certain group of individuals or society. Deontological theories: Deontological theories are the category of normative ethical theories. It is a form of moral philosophy centered on the principles of eighteenth century philosopher Immanuel Kant. Its name comes from the Greek words Deon and logos, meaning the study of duty.Deon means duty. Actions are morally right are those in accordance with certain rules, duties, rights and maxims. Deontological theories hold that an action’s tightness or wrongness depends on its conformity a certain moral norm regardless of the consequences. Actions can be morally permitted, required or forbidden. Consequences of the activities are not important according to deontological theory. The basis of deontology is to assess a person’s character by how well he or she follows moral rules, even if by doing so, tragic results occur.Deontology always advocates the Right over the Good. The deontological model of ethics determines the correctness of a moral action by determining if it follows moral norms. For instance, Kant gave the example that it is wrong to lie even if it could save a person’s life. The agent-centered theory of deontology: focus on the duties of the moral agent (the person acting); rather than the rights of person being acted upon (patient centered theory). Act only according to that maxim where by you can at the same time as an end and never merely as a means to an end.Lying is forbidden, because if lying is a universal action, society would be undermined. Also it is states that people’s moral choices are determined by personal obligation and permission. For instance, a parent is obligated to treat his or her child as more important than other people; however, other adults have no obligation to treat that parent’s child any differently than anyone else. Since people can have personal obligations that are different from other people, they also have permission to protect their obligations at the expense of others.In this theory, a parent has permission to save his or her own child even if it means causing negative or tragic consequences for other people’s children. The patient-centered theory: that deal with rights, it means an action is wrong if it violates a person’s right (life, liberty, property/ the pursuit of happiness) or against being used only as a means for producing good consequences without one’s consent. It centers on the rights of individuals rather than personal duty. It states that individuals have the right to not be used for moral good against their wills.For instance, a murderer cannot be killed witho ut his or her permission even if it would save several lives. The Advantages of Deontological Theories Deontological morality leaves space for agents to give special concern to their families, friends, and projects. At least that is so if the deontological morality contains no strong duty of general generosity or, if it does, it puts a stopper on that duty's demands. Deontological morality, therefore, avoids the overly demanding and excluding aspects of consequentialism and accords more with traditional notions of our moral duties.The Weakness of Deontological Theories Paradox of deontological theories: We are for forbidden from violating certain duties and rights even to prevent more violations of certain duties and rights. Deontological theories have also weak spots. First and most important of all, is the seeming irrationality of the having duties or permissions to make the world morally worse. Deontology is and will always be paradoxical, unless a nonconsequentialist model of ra tionality is created; deontologists need to defuse the model of rationality that motivates consequentialist theories.The Golden rule: is known as the ethic of reciprocity, this famous cross-culture maxim states: â€Å"Do to others as you want them to do to you†. Humanists try to embrace the moral principle known as the ‘Golden Rule’, otherwise known as the ethic of reciprocity, which means we believe that people should aim to treat each other as they would like to be treated themselves – with tolerance, consideration and compassion. Humanists like the Golden Rule because of its universality, because it is derived from human feelings and experience and because it requires people to think about others and try to imagine how they might think and feel.It is a simple and clear default position for moral decision-making. Sometimes people argue that the Golden Rule is imperfect because it makes the assumption that everyone has the same tastes and opinions and wan ts to be treated the same in every situation. But the Golden Rule is a general moral principle, not a hard and fast rule to be applied to every detail of life. Treating other people as we would wish to be treated ourselves does not mean making the assumption that others feel exactly as we do about everything.The treatment we all want is recognition that we are individuals, each with our own opinions and feelings and for these opinions and feelings to be afforded respect and consideration. The Golden Rule is not an injunction to impose one’s will on someone else! Trying to live according to the Golden Rule; means trying to empathize with other people, including those who may be very different from us. Empathy is at the root of kindness, compassion, understanding and respect – qualities that we all appreciate being shown, whoever we are, whatever we think and wherever we come from. Consequentialism:Hold that; this action’s rightness or wrongness depends on consequ ences it causes (happiness or pain). Consequentialist theories say that; the moral rightness of action can be determined by looking at its consequences, if the consequences are good, the act is right. The right act produces greatest ratio of good to evil of any alternative. If the consequences are bad the act is wrong. Lying generally is bad according to ethics, but if we don’t say that her illness to woman with cancer may be it will be better. Consequentialism is a moral theory, which stands under the normative ethical theories.It can be used as guidelines to enlighten on how to resolve moral issues. This specific moral theory focuses on the consequences of one’s actions, rather than looking at the rightness and wrongness of an act. Therefore a morally right act is an act that creates a good result or consequence. According to this theory the ethically correct decision is the one that produces the best consequences: â€Å"The end justifies the means†. Consequen tialists realize and accept the fact that difficult moral choices sometimes injure others. Thereby they are more flexible than duty-based theorists.It is most important to look at consequences and analyze the results’ impact on other people. Thereby this theory is good in ethical dilemmas, because it concentrates on the impact of our behavior on others. There are two types of consequentialist theories: 1- Egoism 2- Utilitarianism 1- Egoism It contends that an act is moral when it promotes the individual’s best long term interests. If an action produces or is intended to produce of greater ratio of good to evil for the individual in the long run than any other alternative, then it is the right action to perform.Ethical egoism claims that it is necessary and sufficient for an action to be morally right that it maximize one's self-interest. Egoism: The view that morality coincides with the self-interest of an individual or an organization. Egoists: Those who determine the moral value of an action based on the principle of personal advantage. An action is morally right if it promotes one’s long-term interest. An action is morally wrong if it undermines it. There are two types of egoism: a- Personal egoism: You pursue your own best interest, but don’t care what others do.Personal egoists claim they should pursue their own best long-term interests, but they do not say what others should do. Personal egoists pursue their own self-interest but do not make the universal claim that all individuals should do the same. Personal Egoism is a view according to which an individual claims that he/she ought do what is in his/her long term self-interests but cannot tell others what they should do. b- Impersonal egoism: You believe everyone should be an egoist. Impersonal egoists claim that everyone should follow his or her best long-term interests.Impersonal egoists: Claim that the pursuit of one’s self-interest should motivate everyone’ s behavior. Impersonal Egoism requires that each person act in his or her own self-interest regardless of the interests of others (unless it so benefits him/her). This does not prevent people cooperating with each other even when there are different self-interests. Misconceptions about egoism: Egoists do only what they want, not true. Egoists don’t possess virtues like honest, generosity and self-sacrifice, not true. Egoist can possess all of these virtues, as long as they advance long term self-interest.Egoism can’t resolve conflict of egoistic interest. Egoists only do what they like, not so. Undergoing unpleasant, even painful experience meshes with egoism, provided such temporary sacrifice is necessary for the advancement of one’s long-term interest. All egoists endorse hedonism (the view that only pleasure is of intrinsic value, the only good in life worth pursuing) although some egoists are hedonistic, others have a broader view of what constitutes self-in terest. Egoists cannot act honestly, be gracious and helpful to others, or otherwise promote others’ interests.Egoism, however, requires us to do whatever will best further our own interests, and doing this sometimes requires us to advance the interests of others. 2- Utilitarianism: Originally formulated Jeremy Bentham in 18th century and developed by J. Stuart Mill in 19th century. Greatest good is the foundation for morality. Determinations of morality are based on the application of the moral law to an action. Principle of Utility or GHP (Greatest Happiness Principle) is the moral law. GHP states that an action is right in proportion to its ability to promote pleasure/happiness.It is wrong in proportion to its ability to promote unhappiness/pain. Right action = pleasure/happiness Wrong action = unhappiness/pain According to Mill; Satisfaction depends on the attainment of pleasure, and pleasure depends on right action. Right action has to conform to the GHP. Satisfaction ha s to conform to the GHP. GHP is moral, greatest happiness principle refers to collective happiness not individual happiness. Standard of morality govern human conducts. If my action conforms to the standard of morality then my action is moral.Happiness of community is more important than personal happiness. You should sacrifice your personal interest for community happiness. Sacrifice is always done some end. Sacrifice for the greater good is the highest virtue. Utilitarianism is based off of the Greatest Happiness Principle which states that actions are considered moral when they promote utility and immoral when they promote the reverse. Utility itself is defined by Mill as happiness with the absence of pain. The main elements of this philosophy are one's actions and their resulting utility.A person is considered moral when their actions tend to promote utility of the general public in accordance with the Greatest Happiness Principle. However, just an action increasing utility does not necessarily imply a moral action. In order for the action to be moral it must be the optimal choice in increasing utility and minimizing pain. Since it is difficult to determine the superior of two vastly different results, Mill provides us with a system to determine which choice would have the higher quality. This system has the proper judges of the actions determine which they prefer.Whichever is preferred by a majority is considered the action with a higher quality result and thus would be more moral to perform than the action with a lower quality result. In the result of a tie, both choices are considered equally moral. The Greatest Happiness principle also allows for us to cause pain to others as long as a majority of the people becomes happier. We could essentially just steal resources from smaller foreign countries and drive them to poverty as long as more people benefit than lose. Things such as slavery, bullying, rape, racism, and murder could be justified under Utilit arianism as long as the majority prefers it.Murderers could justify their action by simply killing all of those who opposed them. Once their numbers became the majority, murdering became justifiable as moral. Lastly, the Greatest Happiness principle eliminates the usage of the laws provided  by our government. As long as the person's actions increase general utility, then it does not matter how many laws are broken in the process. We could all go speeding down roads and ignoring traffic signals/signs to our full enjoyment despite there being speed limits as long as few people cared and most people would be having a blast.Following examples are used to illustrate the concept of utilitarianism. Say that one has promised to a friend to meet up at six o'clock. Is it acceptable to break this promise in order to rescue someone from a burning building? Consequentialist is only concentrating on the consequence. Therefore, when looking at the result a consequentialist might say â€Å"noâ €  as the consequence would be breaking a promise and in this way it could harm the friendship. On the other hand a consequentialist might say â€Å"yes† if the result might be saving another person’s life, even though it would demand breaking a promise.In utilitarianism it depends on the one making a decision. Therefore one could justify the killing of a homeless if his organs could be used beneficially, saving for example four other peoples’ lives, who have jobs and family (Frost, 2007: 15). Utilitarianism has many flaws. One of the biggest problems with it is that measuring and comparing happiness among different people is impossible in practice as well as in principle. Shareholder theory: It says that one and only obligation of business is to maximize its profits while engaging open and free competition without fraud.According to shareholder theorists such as the Nobel winning economist Milton Friedman, managers should inly focus on serving the interests of the firm’s shareholders. Therefore business executives are obligated to follow the wishes of shareholders while obeying the laws and ethical customs of society. On one hand, it is correct to say that the main focus of a business should be to make profit. Without profit, a business cannot survive. In a way, Friedman’s theory does promote social responsibility to society.The increase of profits in a company benefits the economy which benefits the citizens of the economy. Friedman also believed that social responsibility should not be forced by the government. Responsibility to stakeholders can still be achieved while helping to strengthen the community. For example, companies can conduct research to provide a safer product to consumers. Shareholder Theory, on the other hand, focuses strictly on those who have a monetary share of the company. According to this view, a firm’s only purpose is to serve the needs and interests of the company’s owners.In many industries there are companies that seem to follow a stakeholder theory framework while guiding the majority of interests towards the shareholders and ultimately enforcing a shareholder theory framework. An analysis of shareholder theory applied to the management styles found in major league baseball has revealed such a conflict of interest. According to shareholder theorists such as the Nobel winning economist Milton Friedman, managers should only focus on serving the interests of the firm's shareholders.In an article he published in the New York Times, The Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase its Profits, he states, â€Å"Responsibility is to conduct the business in accordance with their [shareholder’s] desires, which generally will be to make as much money as possible while conforming to the basic rules of the society, both those embodied in law and those embodied in ethical custom. † (Friedman, 1970) Stakeholder theory: Freeman; who has contributed a lo t to this approach, he defines stakeholders as â€Å"any group or individual who can affect or is affected by the achievement of the organization objectives.Normative stakeholder theory contains theories of how managers or stakeholders should act and should view the purpose of organization, based on some ethical principle (Friedman 2006). Another approach to the stakeholder concept is the so called descriptive stakeholder theory. This theory is concerned with how managers and stakeholders actually behave and how they view their actions and roles. Stakeholder theory is a theory of organizational management and business ethics that addresses morals and values in managing an organization. It was originally detailed by R.Edward Freeman in the book Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach, and identifies and models the groups which are stakeholders of a corporation, and both describes and recommends methods by which management can give due regard to the interests of those groups. In short, it attempts play to address the â€Å"Principle of Who or What Really Counts. â€Å"[1] In the traditional view of the firm, the shareholder view, the shareholders or stockholders are the owners of the company, and the firm has a binding fiduciary duty to put their needs first, to increase value for them.However, stakeholder theory argues that there are other parties involved, including governmental bodies, political groups, trade associations, trade unions, communities, financiers, suppliers, employees, and customers. Sometimes even competitors are counted as stakeholders – their status being derived from their capacity to affect the firm and its other morally legitimate stakeholders. The nature of what is a stakeholder is highly contested (Miles, 2012),[2] with hundreds of definitions existing in the academic literature (Miles, 2011). 3] The stakeholder view of strategy is an instrumental theory of the corporation, integrating both the resource-based view as well as the market-based view, and adding a socio-political level. This view of the firm is used to define the specific stakeholders of a corporation (the normative theory (Donaldson) of stakeholder identification) as well as examine the conditions under which these parties should be treated as stakeholders (the descriptive theory of stakeholder salience). These two questions make up the modern treatment of Stakeholder Theory. Who are stakeholders?A very different way of differentiating the different kinds of stakeholders is to consider groups of people who have classifiable relationships with the organization. Friedman (2006) means that there is a clear relationship between definitions of what stakeholders and identifications of who are the stakeholders. The main groups of stakeholders are: * Customers * Employees * Local communities the main groups * Suppliers and distributors * shareholder * The media * The public in general * Business partners * Future generations * Past generations (founders of organizations) Academics * NGOs * Stakeholder representatives such as trade unions or trade associations of suppliers or distributers * Government, regulators, policymakers Primary: a firm cannot exist without their continuing participation. Primary stakeholders include: shareholders & investors, employees, contractors, customers & suppliers. Secondary: those who influence or affect or are influenced/affected by, the corporation, but they are not engaged in transactions with the corporation or essential for its survival. Secondary stakeholders include: media, action groups, government agencies, trade unions, regulatory authorities.Non-social stakeholders do not involve human relationships, which may also be divided into primary (direct) and secondary (indirect), for example, natural environment, nonhuman species, future generations and their defenders in pressure groups. They are neither influenced by nor a factor in the survival of the organisation (Wheeler & Sillanpaa (1998): p205, Vandekerckhove & Dentchev (2005): p222). Freeman (1984) argued that it is easy but extremely detrimental for managers to assume that stakeholders who oppose them are irrational and irrelevant.Additionally, this issue is further reinforced by arguing that there is wide variation in stakeholder claims, interests and rights (Hall & Vredenburg, 2005:p11). Internal stakeholders are those in the management, marketing experts, designers, purchasing, manufacturing, assembly and sales, while external stakeholders are the users/customers, distributors, governments, suppliers, communities, laws and regulations. Political stakeholders can be divided into 2 different sub-group; ‘national stakeholders’ and ‘international stakeholders’ (Holtbrugge, Berg & Puck, 2007).National stakeholders include governmental actors such as central government, state government, local authorities and also non-governmental organizations or NGOs. On the other hand, internation al stakeholders are those supranational organizations which constituted by national government (IMF, WTO) and also NGOs (Greenpeace, international association of trade unions, international media). Both governmental actors and supranational organizations are classified as ‘public stakeholders’ while NGOs are classified as ‘private stakeholders’.Hillman & Hitt (1999) proposed a typology which distinguishes between 3 different strategies of political stakeholders: 1. Information strategy: – Seeks to affect the actions of political stakeholders by providing them specific information about preferences for policy or political positions. 2. Financial incentives strategy: – Aims to influence the actions of political stakeholders through financial inducements which may include hiring personnel with direct political experience such as managers or consultants, providing financial support or community bribery of decision makers. . Reputation-building str ategy: – Tries to influence political stakeholders indirectly through stakeholder support. The main instruments to achieve this goal are public relations and codes of conduct. The idea of grouping the different types of stakeholders is a noble one. It helps to improve the understanding and appreciation in managing stakeholders. For this, Kolk & Pinkse (2006:p62) came out with the grouping of stakeholders into two groups, based on potential for threat and for cooperation and, based on concomitant strategies, as shown in Figure 4.Briner et al (1996) indicated 4 different sets of stakeholders namely: client project leader’s organization, outside services and, invisible team members. In the case of corporate and business environment, Colacoglu, Lepak & Hong (2006: p211) cited that there exist three primary groups of stakeholders that exert distinct pressures on organizations and are directly impacted by the performance of organizations. 1. Companies must attend to the need s of capital market stakeholders-shareholders and major suppliers of capital such as banks. 2.Companies must consider the needs and demands from product market stakeholders-the primary customers, suppliers, unions, and host communities with whom organizations conduct business 3. Companies must consider the needs of organizational stakeholders, the employees and managers within the organization. IDENTIFYING The first Step in the mapping process is to understand that there is no magic list of stakeholders. The final list will depend on your business, its impacts, and your current engagement objective—as a result it should not remain static.These lists will change as the environment around you evolves and as stakeholders themselves make decisions or change their opinions Action: Brainstorm a list of stakeholders without screening, including everyone who has an interest in your objectives today and who may have one tomorrow. Where possible, identify individuals. Use the following list to help you brainstorm: * Owners (e. g. Investors, shareholders, agents, analysts, and ratings agencies) * Customers (e. g. direct customers, indirect customers, and advocates) * Employees (e. g. urrent employees, potential employees, retirees, representatives, and dependents) * Industry (e. g. suppliers, competitors, industry associations, industry opinion leaders, and media) * Community (e. g. residents near company facilities, chambers of commerce, resident associations, schools, community organizations, and special interest groups) * Environment (e. g. nature, nonhuman species, future generations, scientists, ecologists, spiritual communities, advocates, and NGOs) * Government (e. g. public authorities, and local policymakers; regulators; and opinion leaders) * Civil society organizations (e. . NGOs, faith-based organizations, and labor unions) To facilitate important stakeholder mapping, Freeman suggests the following questions: In 1984 Edward Freeman offered questions th at help begin the analysis of identifying major stakeholders: * Who are our current and potential stakeholders? * What are their interest/rights? * How does each stakeholder affect us? * How do we affect each stakeholder? * What assumption does our current strategy make about each important stakeholder? * What are the environmental variables that affect us and our stakeholders? How do we measure each of these variables and their impact? * How do we keep score with our stakeholders? Stakeholder versus Shareholder? According to stakeholder theory, the very purpose of the firm is to serve and coordinate the interests of its various stakeholders. These stakeholders can include employees, suppliers, customers and the communities in which the firm operates. It is the moral obligation of the firm’s managers to maintain a balance among these interests when directing the activities of the firm. Shareholder theory, on the other hand, focuses strictly on those who have a monetary share of the company.According to this view, a firm’s only purpose is to serve the needs and interests of the company’s owners. The Corporate Social Responsibility The way business involves the shareholders, employees, customers, suppliers, governments, non-governmental organizations, international organizations and other stakeholders is usually a key features of corporate social responsibility concept. CSR involves a commitment through the on-going engagement of stakeholders, the active participation of communities impacted by company activities and public reporting of company policies and performance in the economic, environmental and social arenas.Corporate social responsibility (CSR, also called corporate conscience, corporate citizenship, social performance, or sustainable responsible business/ Responsible Business)[1] is a form of corporate self-regulation integrated into a business model. CSR policy functions as a built-in, self-regulating mechanism whereby a business monitors and ensures its active compliance with the spirit of the law, ethical standards, and international norms.CSR is a process with the aim to embrace responsibility for the company's actions and encourage a positive impact through its activities on the environment, consumers, employees, communities, stakeholders and all other members of the public sphere who may also be considered as stakeholders. The term â€Å"corporate social responsibility† came into common use in the late 1960s and early 1970s after many multinational corporations formed the term stakeholder, meaning those on whom an organization's activities have an impact. It was used to describe corporate owners beyond shareholders as a result of an influential book by R.Edward Freeman, Strategic management: a stakeholder approach in 1984. [2] Proponents argue that corporations make more long term profits by operating with a perspective, while critics argue that CSR distracts from the economic role of businesses . Others argue CSR is merely window-dressing, or an attempt to pre-empt the role of governments as a watchdog over powerful multinational corporations. CSR is titled to aid an organization's mission as well as a guide to what the company stands for and will uphold to its consumers.Development business ethics is one of the forms of applied ethics that examines ethical principles and moral or ethical problems that can arise in a business environment. ISO 26000 is the recognized international standard for CSR. Public sector organizations (the United Nations for example) adhere to the triple bottom line (TBL). It is widely accepted that CSR adheres to similar principles but with no formal act of legislation. The UN has developed the Principles for Responsible Investment as guidelines for investing entities.